Chemistry 16 Lab Manual

Table of Contents Laboratory Safety and Laboratory Guidelines Common and Special Laboratory Equipment Materials and Other Requirements Common Laboratory Operations and Techniques Experiment 1 †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 10 Properties of Matter Experiment 2 †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 12 Chemical Changes Experiment 3 †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 15 Classification of Matter Experiment 4 †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢ € ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 17 Chemical Nomenclature: The Language of Chemistry Experiment 5 †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 22 Water of HydrationExperiment 6 †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 25 Gases Experiment 7 †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 27 Oxygen Experiment 8 †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 29 Heat and Volume Effects Experiment 9 †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 31 Flame Test Experiment 10 †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 32 Electromotive Series Experiment 11 †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 33 Oxidation – Reduction Reactions/ Some Aspects of Corrosion Experiment 12†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â ‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 35 Colligative Properties GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS TO THE STUDENTS Apparatus Check each piece of apparatus, which you find in your locker from the duplicate list furnished to you by your instructor. Sign your name and submit to your instructor. The instructor signs the checklists and gives one copy to you for your safekeeping. ? Provide your locker with reliable padlock. You are responsible for all the apparatus issued to you. Towards the end of the semester you have to replace or give a deposit for any piece which you have lost or broken. If you have partners, each of you will share equally any loss or breakage of apparatus kept in your lockers and those orrowed from the stockroom. A clearance duly signed by the laboratory attendant is a requirement for taking the final examination. NO CLEARANCE, NO FINAL EXAMINATION. ? General apparatus, e. g. , Bunsen burner, thermometer, iron stand, clamps, etc. and special apparatus may be borrowed from the laboratory attendant. ? Borr owing of apparatus from the stockroom should be done during the first 30 minutes of the laboratory period. Materials and Other Requirements You have to provide yourself with the following materials and supplies besides the apparatus in the laboratory locker and the stockroom: Group |Individual | |Masking/paper tape |Tissue paper |Vials with cover (5 pcs) |Lab notebook | |Pair of scissors |Rags |Medicine dropper (3-5 pcs) |Lab manual | |Aspirator |Marking pens |Rubber tubing (2 ft) |Lab gown | |Wire gauze |Filter paper |Newspaper/scratch paper |Hand towel | |Wash bottle |Tray |Stirring rod |Mask | |Liquid detergent |Match |Corks/rubber stoppers |Goggles | |Test tube brush |Test tube holder |Padlock with keys | | Laboratory Work Laboratory work is an integral and essential part of any chemistry course. Chemistry is an experimental science – the compounds and reactions that are met in the lecture and classroom work has been discovered by experimental observation. The purpose of laboratory work is to provide an opportunity to observe the reality of compounds and reactions and to learn something of the operations and techniques. Safety is Top Priority ? All students are required to wear a lab gown during each experiment. This will be strictly enforced to avoid accidents caused by chemical spills and the like. Safety glasses, goggles or eye shields must be worn during the experiment. Contact lenses should not be worn. ? Shorts, skirts, sandals, slippers are not allowed in the laboratory. Secure long hair. ? Never taste, smell, or touch a chemical solution unless specifically directed to do so. Individual allergic or sensitivity responses to chemicals cannot be anticipated. If any chemical comes in contact with any other parts of your body or clothes, wash thoroughly with plenty of water. ? Procedures involving the liberation of volatile or toxic flammable materials shall be performed in a fume hood (e. g. , H2S, HCN). ? Never heat a flask or apparatus that is not opened to the atmosphere. Always pour waste acid, used KMnO4, organic solvents and solutions of heavy metals into their respective disposal jars, never into the sink. ? Replace the cover of every container immediately after removal of reagent. Deposit insoluble refuse such as pieces of paper, wood, glass cork in the waste basket, never into the sink or on the floor ? All accidents, injuries, breakages and spillages, no matter how minor, must be reported immediately to the instructor. ? Eating, drinking, smoking and playing inside the laboratory are strictly prohibited. Your hands may be contaminated with â€Å"unsafe† chemicals. ? Unauthorized experiments, including variations of those in the laboratory manual, are strictly prohibited.If your chemical intuition suggests further experimentation, consult with your instructor first. ? Unauthorized person(s) shall not be allowed in the laboratory. ? Maintain a wholesome, businesslike attitude. Horseplay and other careless ac ts are prohibited. ? The tabletop must be cleared of unnecessary materials. Put all bags and books in designated areas. ? Solids, water and other liquids spilled on your tabletop must be cleaned up as soon as possible ? No electronic equipment (laptops, ipod, mp3s, cellphone, etc. ) will be switched on while working in the lab. For Economic Reasons ? Always turn off the burner as soon as you are finished using it. Get only the amount of the reagent, which you need in the experiment. Use spatula for solid reagents and pipet for liquid ones. ? Never return any excess reagent to a bottle, unless specifically directed, to avoid contamination Before leaving the room, see to it that: ? Your locker is locked ? Your assigned water and/or gas outlet(s) are turned off ? The tabletop and the floor near your working area are clean and dry Collecting Data ? Record all data as they are being collected on the laboratory notebook. Data on scraps of paper (such as mass measurements in the balance ro om) will be confiscated. ? Record the data in ink as you perform the experiment. If a mistake is made in recording data, cross out the incorrect data entry with a single line (do not erase, white out or obliterate) and clearly enter the corrected data nearby. If a large section of data is deemed incorrect, write a short notation as to why the data are in error, place a single diagonal line across the data, and note where the correct data are recorded. Assessment: Evaluation of the students’ progress will be based on performance laboratory experiments; written reports of laboratory work and exams. The distribution is as follows: Exams35% Performance/ Attendance15% Written Laboratory report35% Pre-laboratory write-up/ Data notebook15%Laboratory Course Policies: 1. Arrive on time. The overview and description of the lab exercise, and the questions you need to answer in your written reports are usually given at the start of each session. These could be valuable to the success of you laboratory course. 2. Note all laboratory safety policies at all times. You are required to wear lab coats and safety glasses while in the lab. You must wear your protective gear at all times that any lab work is underway. Failure to observe safety precautions may result in your being dismissed from the laboratory class. 3. Request all chemicals and materials that you may need from the stock room at least 30 mins. head of the scheduled experiment. At this stage in your studies, you are expected to be able to work independently and responsibly. 4. Written reports of laboratory work are due at the start of the following lab session. Reports that are late will be penalized for each day of late submission(10% deduction per day). 5. Laboratory techniques, including your preparedness and participation in each laboratory activity, good note-keeping and ability to work well with your partner will be graded accordingly. 6. Read and plan you work before every laboratory class. Prepare a p re-laboratory write-up at the start of the lab period and prior to starting your laboratory work.You will not be allowed to perform the experiment without a pre-lab write up. The pre lab should include the following sections,: Experiment #, Title of Experiment, Date, Objectives of the Experiment’ Theoretical Framework, Materials and Methods, Expected Outcome. Sign and Date each pre-lab write-up. During the conduct of the experiment, record all your raw data in the same notebook. 7. Written Reports should be written on a short-sized bond paper and will have the following components: Name, Laboratory partner/s, Discussion of Results, Calculation/s(if any), Question/s, and Answer/s, Conclusion/s, Comment on you and your partner’s contribution towards the successful completion of the laboratory activity.Submit your lab report as a group, write your group number and experiment number as the subject of the email. COMMON LABORATORY OPERATIONS AND TECHNIQUES 1. BUNSEN BURNER A . Lighting the Burner a. Examine the parts of the Bunsen burner. Make a sketch of the burner, label and state the function of its parts. b. Attach the rubber tubing from the burner to the gas outlet on the lab bench. Bring the lighted match or striker up 4-5 cm above the barrel while opening the gas valve. c. Adjust the gas supply so as to have a flame of not more than 8 cm high. Close the air holes of the burner and observe the appearance of the flame. Hold the porcelain dish on this flame for a moment.What is deposited on the porcelain dish? d. Open the air holes until the flame is pale blue and has two or more distinct cones. A slight buzzing or roaring sound is characteristic of the hottest flame from the burner. Too much air may blow the flame out. Adjust the air intake until the roaring stops. What is the effect on the flame upon opening of the air holes? Does this type of flame have the same effect on the porcelain dish? Why? Spray powdered charcoal on the flame and note its effect. What makes the flame luminous? e. When the best adjustment is reached, three distinct cones are visible. Always use this kind of flame unless directed otherwise. f.Extinguish the flame when it is not being used, by closing the gas valve. B. Determining the Flame Temperatures a. Wet a piece of cardboard and hold it vertically through the center of the flame, with the lower end of the cardboard resting against the top of the burner. b. Remove the cardboard as soon as it shows a tendency to char. From the scorched portions note the relative temperature of the different parts of the flame. c. Draw a sketch of the flame to illustrate the different regions. 2. GLASS MANIPULATION A. Cutting a. Place the glass tubing flat on the table. Make a single scratch with a sharp triangular file 30cm from one end of the glass tubing. b.Grasp the glass tubing with both hands and place the thumbs one cm beside the scratch. Position the thumbs such that they are opposite the scratch. c. Break th e glass tubing by applying a gentle pressure. If it does not yield to gentle pressure, make a deeper scratch. d. The edges of the cut glass tubing are sharp and should be polished by rotating it at the non-luminous portion of the burner’s flame. This is to prevent the sharp edges of the glass from ruining corks and rubber tubing as well as cutting your fingers. B. Bending a. Take a piece of glass tubing about 30 cm long and hold it lengthwise over the flame. b. To bend the glass tubing properly, it must be heated uniformly over a length of 5 to 8 cm.This can be done using a flame spreader. c. Roll the tube back and forth until it has become quite soft. d. When it has become sufficiently soft, (i. e. , the glass tubing begins to take a pink color and sag gently) take it out of the flame. e. Bend quickly to the desired angle (30 ° or 90 °) and hold until it hardens. Try to get a good idea of the angle before you begin to work so that you may work rapidly and secure the desi red bend at once. f. Make one right angle and one 30O bent glass tubing. NOTE: Reheating and re-bending produces unsightly and often frail apparatus. C. Drawing Out a. Roll the center of a 10cm glass tube over the flame until it softens.The tube must be constantly rotated, to prevent the softened portion from sagging. b. Quickly remove it from the flame, and while holding it in a vertical position, gently pull the ends apart until the bore at the stretched portion is of the desired diameter. c. Cut to the desired nozzle length and fire polish the tip. D. Boring corks and rubber stoppers a. Select a cork that will fit into the mouth of the flask or test tube. b. Soften by rolling it between the tabletop and the palm of your hand. Select a sharp cork borer one size smaller than the glass tube that will be inserted. c. Place the cork on the desk and gently twist the borer in until it is halfway through the cork.Then withdraw the borer and finish the hole from the other end of the cork. d. Smoothen the hole in the cork with a round file. e. If the hole is too small, enlarge it by carefully filing with a round file. Only small adjustment should be made in this way. f. Rubber stoppers are bored in the same manner as mentioned. Select a very sharp borer one size larger than the hole to be made, and wet it with glycerin. Proceed as in boring the cork, but do not apply too much pressure. E. Inserting a glass tubing through a cork/rubber stopper NOTE: This operation is the most common cause of accidents in the laboratory. a. Wet the cork and the glass tubing with water. b.Place your hand on the tubing 2-3 cm away from the stopper. Protect your hand with a towel. c. Simultaneously twist and push the tubing slowly and carefully through the hole. 3. CLEANING OF GLASSWARE a. Clean all glassware with a soap or detergent solution. Use a brush if appropriate. b. Once the glassware is thoroughly cleaned, rinse several times with tap water and then once or twice with distilled w ater. c. Roll each rinse around the entire inner surface of the glass wall for a complete rinse. Discard each rinse through the delivery point of the vessel (e. g. , beaker spout). d. Invert the clean glassware on a clean paper towel or rubber mat to dry.Do not dry any glassware over direct flame. e. The glassware is clean if, following the final rinse, no water droplets adhere to the clean part of the glassware. f. If you must use a piece of glassware while it is still wet, rinse it with the solution to be used in the manner described in step 5c below. 4. TRANSFERRING OF LIQUIDS/SOLUTIONS a. When the liquid or solution is to be transferred from a reagent bottle, remove the glass stopper and hold it between the fingers of the hand used to grasp the reagent bottle. Never lay the glass stopper on the laboratory bench; impurities may be picked up and thus contaminate the liquid when the stopper is returned. b.To transfer a liquid from one vessel to another, hold a stirring rod against the lip of the vessel containing the liquid and pour the liquid down the stirring rod, which, in turn, should touch the inner wall of the receiving vessel. Return the glass stopper to the reagent bottle. c. Do not transfer more liquid than is needed for the experiment; do not return any excess liquid or unused liquid to the original reagent bottle. 5. MEASURING VOLUME OF LIQUID/SOLUTIONS a. The eye should always be level with the meniscus when you are making a reading. b. For measurements of clear or transparent liquids/solutions, the volume is read using the lower meniscus. For colored liquids/solutions, the upper meniscus is used. 6. HEATING A LIQUID/SOLUTION IN A TEST TUBE NOTE: Never fix the position of the flame at the base of the test tube and never point the test tube to anyone.The contents may be ejected violently if the test tube is not heated properly. a. The test tube should be less than one third full. Hold the test tube with a test tube holder at an angle of about 45? w ith the cool flame. A cool flame is a nonluminous flame supplied with a reduced amount of fuel. b. Move the test tube circularly in and out of the flame, heating from top to bottom. 7. PRECIPITATION a. Place 2 mL of sodium chloride solution in a test tube and slowly add 2 mL of silver nitrate solution. Write the balanced chemical equation for this reaction. NOTE: Be careful in handling silver nitrate solution. This solution may leave dark stains on skin, clothes or bench top. b.The solid formed is the precipitate and in this case, the slightly soluble silver chloride. Allow the precipitate to settle. c. Add a few drops of silver nitrate solution. Continue addition until no precipitation is observed. Divide the mixture into two portions and keep these for procedure 8. 8. SEPARATING A LIQUID FROM A SOLID A. Filtration a. Preparation of the filter paper to be used for gravity filtration: i. Cut out a 5† x 5† piece of filter paper. Fold the filter paper in exact halves and f old it again crosswise into two. ii. Make a small tear in one corner. This tear seals the paper against the inflow of air to the underside of the filter paper. iii.Open the folded paper so as to form a cone. iv. Place it in a funnel. Moisten it with a little water and press it against the top wall of the funnel to form a seal. The filter paper must always be smaller than the funnel. v. Support the funnel with a clamp or a funnel rack. b. Transfer the precipitate formed from the previous activity by carefully pouring the mixture, with the aid of a glass rod, into the filter paper. The liquid that passes through the liquid is called the filtrate. c. The tip of the funnel should touch the wall of the receiving beaker to reduce any splashing of the filtrate. d. Fill the bowl of the funnel until it is less than two-thirds full. e.Always keep the funnel stem full with the filtrate; the weight of the filtrate creates a slight suction on the filter in the funnel, thus this hastens the filtr ation process. f. Set aside both precipitate and filtrate for the next two activities. B. Decantation a. Transfer the precipitate retained in the filter paper into a beaker by rinsing the filter paper with jets of water from a wash bottle. b. Allow the solid to completely settle at the bottom of the vessel for several minutes. c. Transfer the liquid (called supernatant) into another container with the aid of a clean stirring rod. d. Do this slowly so as not to disturb the solid. Is this method applicable for the separation of all solid-liquid mixtures? Why? e. Rinse the precipitate with water and decant again. f. Which of the two separation methods (i. e. decantation or filtration) is better in isolating the precipitate? Why? E. Evaporation a. Pour the filtrate obtained from 8A into the evaporating dish. Place the evaporating dish on a wire-gauze supported on an iron ring clamped to an iron stand. Heat the dish over a cool flame. b. Continue heating until crystals begin to appear. C over the dish with a watch glass and allow the contents to cool. The solid remaining after evaporation is called the residue. What is the composition of the residue? 9. WEIGHING a. Weigh 0. 5 g of sand. Weighing may be done on platform balance or on an analytical balance. Rough weighing (to the nearest half gram), can be done on the platform balance.The analytical balance is used to get more accurate mass measurements. b. The properties of the substance will often determine the nature of the container where it is to be weighed. Use a weighing paper, a watch glass, a beaker, or some container to measure the mass of the chemicals. c. Do not place the chemicals directly on the balance pan. When in doubt as to what container to use, ask your instructor. TECHNIQUE IN HANDLING CHEMICALS d. A reagent is a substance which has a definite composition and a set of specific properties. The strong solutions are marked â€Å"concentrated† and the weak solutions, â€Å"dilute†. Some examples of the reagents are: Sulfuric acidH2SO4Ammonia NH3Hydrochloric AcidHClSodium hydroxide NaOH Acetic acidCH3COOHCalcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 e. Before getting the desired amount, read the label twice to be sure it is the correct chemical at the right concentration. Transfer the needed amount into the receiving container. Once removed, these should never be returned. f. Do not take out more than what is needed to minimize waste. Do not return excess chemicals to the reagent bottle. In pouring reagents from bottles, don’t place the stopper on the table but hold it between your fingers. g. Never touch, taste or smell chemicals unless specifically directed to do so. ExPERIMENT Properties of MatterThis experiment presents several of the properties used to identify a sample of matter. The data gathered are interpreted by the use of some quantitative method. For safety and accuracy of results, the experimenter should make sure that all set-ups used should be properly checked for possible connection leaks and other errors. Stirring rod should be used to ensure uniform distribution of heat when heating liquids in an open container. The heat should also be regulated especially when heating closed set-ups. Laboratory techniques included are: measurement and transferring of liquids, weighing and heating of liquids and solids. MATERIALS AND APPARATUS 25 or 50-mL graduated cylinder |Thermometer |Cork and/or rubber stoppers | |50-mL distilling flask |Bunsen burner |Top loading balance | |250-mL beaker |Rubber tubings |Condenser | |25-mL Florence flask |Iron stand |Oil | |Test tube |Iron ring |Sulfur powder |2-3 iron clamps |Wire gauze |Isopropyl alcohol | | | |Lead pellets | PROCEDURE 1. BOILING POINT a) Measure 25 mL of isopropyl alcohol and record the initial temperature. 32 degrees a) Transfer it into a 50-mL distilling flask. Assemble the distillation set-up (consult the instructor). b) Warm the set-up gently with a Bunsen burner. Take temperature readings at one-minute time intervals until the liquid begins to boil, and two more minutes thereafter. c) Continue distilling until the flask is almost dry. Pour off the liquid still present in the flask. ) Transfer the distillate into the distilling flask and repeat the distillation process. e) Make a graph of your data with time on the x-axis and temperature on the y-axis. Compare the two graphs. f) Determine the boiling point of the liquid from the graphs. Look for the standard boiling point of isopropyl alcohol and get the % error of the boiling point obtained experimentally. 2. MELTING POINT a) Place about 1-gram of sulfur powder into a dry test tube. Clamp the test tube vertically into the oil bath. See to it that the solid is below the oil level. a) Hang the thermometer into the test tube such that it is covered by the solid and does not touch the sides and bottom of the test tube. ) Heat the oil bath gradually and take temperature readings at one-minute intervals until the solid has co mpletely liquefied, and two more minutes thereafter. c) Make a graph of your data with time on the x-axis and temperature on the y-axis. Determine the melting point of sulfur from the graph. Look for the standard melting point of sulfur and get the % error of the melting point obtained in the experiment. NOTE: Stir the oil bath so that the heat is uniformly distributed. 3. DENSITY OF A LIQUID a) Clean and dry the Florence flask. Weigh the dry flask and the rubber stopper on a top loading balance and record the mass. b) Fill the flask with distilled water until the liquid level is nearly to the brim.Put the stopper on the flask in order to drive all the air and excess water. Work the stopper gently into the flask so that it is firmly seated into position. c) Wipe any water on the outside of the flask and soak up all excess water from around the top of the stopper. d) Again, weigh the flask, which should be completely dry on the outside and full of water, and record the mass. e) Calcu late for the precise volume of the flask given the standard density of water, the temperature of the laboratory and the mass of water in the flask. f) Empty the flask, dry it and fill it with isopropyl alcohol. Stopper and dry the flask as you did when working with water.Record the weight of the flask filled isopropyl alcohol. g) Calculate the density of isopropyl alcohol and determine the % error using its standard density. 4. DENSITY OF A SOLID a) Use the same flask from the previous procedure for this part. Dry the flask completely and add small chunks of lead metal into the flask until it is about half full. b) Weigh the flask, with its stopper and the metal, and record the mass. Determine the mass of the metal in the flask. c) Fill the flask with water, leaving the metal in the flask, and then replace the stopper. Roll the metal around the flask to make sure that no air is trapped between the metal pieces. ) Refill the flask if necessary, and then weigh the dry stoppered flask full of water plus the metal sample. e) Compute for the density of the lead using the data obtained in this section and in part 3. Determine the density of the metal and compute for the % error. QUESTIONS 1. Interpret the graphs obtained in parts 1 and 2. What changes occur at the different regions of the graph? 2. What kind of properties are boiling point, melting point and density? 3. Which of these properties may be used to identify a sample of matter? Why? 4. Is one property sufficient to establish the density of the substance? 5. What is the identity of the distillate in Part 1? What is your basis?ExPERIMENT CHEMICAL CHANGES This experiment presents different types of chemical change. Some quantitative methods are included to emphasize proper data handling and interpretation of results. Formula writing and setting up of simple chemical equations are introduced. It is to be emphasized that the experimenter should always take note of any physical evidence that a chemical reaction is taking place. Such physical evidences include the formation of a precipitate, change in color of the solution or precipitate, evolution of a gas, and absorption or evolution of heat. ? Evolution of gas. This evolution may be quite rapid or it may be a â€Å"fizzing† sound. Appearance or Disappearance of precipitate. The nature of the precipitate is important; it may be crystalline, it may have color, it may merely cloud a solution. ? Evolution or Absorption of Heat. The reaction vessel becomes warm if the reaction is exothermic or cools if the reaction is endothermic. ? Change in color. A substance added to the system may cause a color change. Also included are the common laboratory operations such as measurement and transferring of liquids, precipitation, decantation, filtration, washing and transferring of precipitates, drying of solids, weighing, testing for acidity and basicity, and testing for completeness of a reaction.This experiment also emphasizes the need for gr adual mixing of reactants to make certain the maximum recovery of the product, and the importance of washing, to ensure the purity of the product. MATERIALS AND APPARATUS |50-mL graduated cylinder |Watch glass |Zinc dust | |250-mL beaker |Evaporating dish |0. 100 M Cu(NO3)2 | |250-mL Erlenmeyer flask |Pair of scissors |6. 00 M NH3 | |Funnel |Filter paper |6. 0 M NaOH | |Bunsen burner |Litmus paper |6. 00M HCl | |Stirring rod |Medicine Dropper |6. 00 M H2SO4 | PROCEDURE 1. Precipitation of Copper (II) hydroxide a) Measure 10-mL of 0. 100 M Cu(NO3)2 solution in a 250-mL beaker. a) Add dropwise with constant stirring about 0. 5 mL 6. 00 M NaOH solution. b) Place a piece of litmus paper on a dry watch glass and moisten it with the solution using a stirring rod. c) If it is not yet alkaline, add more NaOH. Record any change in color of the solution and describe the precipitate. 2.FORMATION OF COPPER (II) OXIDE a) Boil the contents of the beaker in part 1 for about 2 minutes with constant stirring to prevent â€Å"bumping† which may result in loss of material. The precipitate should change in color. b) Allow the copper (II) oxide precipitate to settle. Take note of the change in color of the precipitate. c) Test the supernate with a few drops of 6. 00M NaOH. If cloudiness is observed, continue the addition of the base until precipitation is complete. d) Heat the solution again with constant stirring, until all the precipitate has changed in color. Record the color changes that occur. What is the evidence of complete precipitation?What is the composition of the supernate? 3. CONVERSION OF COPPER (II) HYDROXIDE TO COPPER (II) SULFATE a. Let the precipitate settle until the supernate is clear. Decant the supernate through a filter paper into the Erlenmeyer flask. b. Wash the precipitate in the beaker using 10 mL of water. Let the precipitate settle and decant the wash water through the filter paper into the Erlenmeyer flask containing the filtrate. c. Repeat the process, so that the precipitate is washed a total of four times. d. Wash the same filter paper with about 1 mL 6. 00 M H2SO4 dropwise, catching the filtrate in the beaker containing copper (II) oxide precipitate. e.Rotate or stir the contents of the beaker to dissolve the solid. Add some more H2SO4 to dissolve the precipitate completely. f. Wash the filter paper again, this time with 10 mL water, catching the wash water in the same beaker. Record your observations. 4. REDUCTION OF Cu (II) IONS TO METALLIC COPPER a. To the solution (from 3), gradually add with constant stirring, about 1. 5 g zinc dust in minute amounts. CAUTION: Stir until no further reaction is observed before adding more zinc to make the solution colorless. b. Test for the completeness of the reaction by adding a few drops (1-2 drops) of the solution into a test tube containing about 1 mL of 6. 0 M NH3. If a colored solution is obtained, compare this with the control solution (prepare by adding a drop of 0. 100 M Cu(NO3)2 solution and 2 drops of NH3 to 1 mL water) and add more zinc into the solution with constant stirring. Repeat the process until the test with ammonia solution gives a colorless solution. c. Decant and discard the supernate in 4-b. Wash the precipitate in the beaker twice, each time using 10-mL portions of water. Decant and discard the wash water after each washing, taking care not to lose any solid. d. To the precipitate, add 10 mL water and 2 mL 6. 00 M HCl slowly and stir the contents until no more change is observed.Let the precipitate settle, decant and discard the supernate into a waste acid jar. e. Wash the precipitate twice, each time using 10-mL portions of water. Decant and discard the wash water. f. Transfer the entire solid in the beaker to a previous weighed filter paper. Use as little water as possible to wash out the solid from the beaker. Discard the filtrate and wash water. g. Fold the filter paper containing the solid and press this between pieces of dry f ilter paper to remove most of the water. Place the partially dried filter paper containing the solid on a watch glass, and air dry in your locker until the next period. Weigh the solid and the filter paper.Record all masses obtained. 5. OXIDATION OF COPPER a. Place a pinch of the weighed solid in an evaporating dish and heat the dish directly over a Bunsen burner. Observe and record your results. b. Submit the remaining solid, properly packaged and labeled, to your instructor. QUESTIONS 1. What type of process and/or chemical changes is observed in procedures 1-5? 2. Why must zinc be added very gradually to the solutions in procedure 4. a? 3. What is the purpose of the test using ammonia solution? 4. Why must HCl be added to the solid after the reaction with zinc dust is completed? 5. Why is it not advisable to dry the copper directly over a Bunsen flame? 6.Calculate the percent recovery in the experiment. Does your result refute the law of conservation of matter? Explain. ExPERIMEN T CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER Matter is classified according to its various properties and the type of changes it undergoes. There are two general types of matter, substances and mixtures. Substances are further subdivided into two types, elements and compounds. Mixtures are also of two kinds, homogeneous and heterogeneous. This experiment aims to differentiate several samples of matter. The samples are subjected to different conditions like temperature and solubility in some solvents. Chemical changes are illustrated by chemical equations. MATERIALS AND APPARATUS Beakers |Evaporating dish |Sugar crystals | |250-mL Erlenmeyer flask |Test tubes |Sodium chloride | |Funnel |Thermometer |Iodine Crystals | |Bunsen burner |Mortar and Pestle |Sulfur powder | |Glass tubing |Filter paper |Lead (II) nitrate | |Watch glass |Litmus paper |Magnesium ribbon | |Medicine dropper |Starch solution | | PROCEDURE 1. ubstances, homogeneous and heterogeneuos mixtures a. Measure out one gram of refined sugar in the balance. Dissolve the sample in 50 mL tap water. Compare the appearance of the solution with that of distilled water. Set up a simple distillation apparatus using the Erlenmeyer flask, thermometer and glass tubing. b. Distill the sugar solution and make a boiling point curve on the graphing paper. Collect the sugar solution and make a boiling point curve of the isopropyl alcohol (from experiment 1). Compare the boiling point curve of the sugar solution with that of the isopropyl alcohol. Which of the two is a substance and which is a mixture? c.Test for the solubility of the powdered sulfur in water. Do the same with sodium chloride. Weigh out 0. 5 g of each chemical on the analytical balance. d. Grind the two together in a mortar. Note the appearance of the mixture. With a hand lens, observe the mixture more closely. Can you distinguish the sulfur from the sodium chloride crystals? e. Transfer half of the mixture into a beaker containing about 15 mL of water. Stir thoroughl y then filter the resulting mixture. Identify the filtrate and the residue on the filter paper. f. Transfer the filtrate into an evaporating dish. Heat this to boiling. When the crystals begin to form, cover the dish with watch glass to prevent sputtering.When the crystals are almost dry, stop heating the dish. g. Heat the other half of the original mixture in an evaporating dish until melting is observed. Examine the resulting product closely using a hand lens. Can you now differentiate the two components? Test its solubility in water. Record all observations. 2. ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS a. Take two small crystals of iodine. Place one crystal inside the test tube and heat it gently. Compare the heated and the unheated crystals with respect to state, color, solubility in water and their behavior in starch solution. b. Take a pinch of lead nitrate crystals. Observe carefully and list down its observable physical properties.Heat it over a burner, gently at first, and then strongly after wards until no further change is observed. List down your observations. 3. METALS AND NON-METALS a. Clamp a medium-sized test tube horizontally. Take a piece of magnesium ribbon and insert one end into a 10-cm piece of glass tubing. b. Heat the magnesium ribbon. When it begins to burn, insert the burning magnesium ribbon into the test tube until the metal has burned completely. c. Dissolve the residue in 3-mL water. Test the acidity and basicity of the solution with litmus paper. Repeat using a pinch of sulfur. QUESTIONS 1. Write all chemical equations involved. 2. Does the appearance of the sugar solution differ from that of distilled water? 3.In part 1, which is an example of a homogeneous and heterogeneous mixture? How are the two types of mixtures differentiated? 4. What is the composition of the crystals formed after evaporation of the filtrate in 1. b? 5. Based on the results of part 1, how are substances different from mixtures? 6. Is there any evidence that would indicate a change in the identities of each of the substances heated? What are these evidences? 7. Differentiate the oxides of metals and non-metals. 8. From the results in part 2, define elements, compounds, metals and non-metal. 9. Iodine is liberated from seaweeds by the action of sulfuric acid on the ash of the seaweeds. How is it collected from the ashes? ExPERIMENTThe Language of Chemistry: Chemical Nomenclature Chemical Nomenclature is the system of naming substances. A systematic nomenclature was established by an organization of chemists called the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). The standardized rules developed by the IUPAC are summarized below. 1. Binary Compounds 1. 1 Binary Compounds Containing Two Nonmetals If two nonmetals form a compound, the less electronegative is written first, followed by the more electronegative element. The same pattern is used in naming; the less electronegative is mentioned first, followed by the stem of the name of the more e lectronegative ending in –ide.When more than one compound can be formed from the combination of two elements, Greek prefixes are used to indicate the number of atoms of each element. |CO2 |carbon dioxide | |PCl3 |phosphorous trichloride | |Cl2O |Dichlorine mon(o)oxide* | |HCl |Hydrogen chloride | *this is omitted when the more electronegative element begins with a vowel Greek Prefix |Number |Greek Prefix |Number | |Mono- |1 | Hexa- |6 | | Di- |2 | Hepta- |7 | | Tri- |3 | Octa- |8 | | Tetra- |4 | Nona- |9 | | Penta- |5 | Deca- |10 | 1. 2 Binary Compounds Containing a Metal and a Nonmetal The metal is always written first, in both the name and the formula. As with all binary compounds, the nonmetal takes an –ide ending.There are two types that we must consider: metals with fixed (only one) oxidation number and those with variable (more than one) oxidation numbers. 1. 2. 1 Cations Monatomic ions cations retain their names as elements. The NH4+ ion, ammonium ion is named a s if it were a metal ion because of its saltlike properties. |Li+ |lithium ion | |Na+ |sodium ion | |Mg2+ |magnesium ion | |Al3+ |aluminum ion | 1. 2. 2 Monatomic AnionsMonatomic anions are named using their names as elements and the suffix –ide. |C4- |carbide | |N3- |nitride | |O2- |oxide | |H- |hydride | 1. 2. 3 Metals with Fixed Oxidation Numbers The metals with fixed oxidation numbers are the IA and IIA, Aluminum and Zinc. All other metals have variable oxidation numbers. Note that no prefixes are used. NaCl |Sodium chloride | |Na2S |Sodium sulfide | |AgBr |silver bromide | |Al2O3 |aluminum oxide | 1. 2. 4 Metals with Variable Oxidation Numbers In a binary compound of a metal of this type with a nonmetal, the oxidation number of the metal must be indicated in the name. There are two methods of doing this, the classical system and the Stock or Roman numeral system. 1. 2. 4. Classical System This system can only be used for metals having two oxidation states. An –ic ending is used for the metal with the highest oxidation state and an –ous ending is used for the lowest. Also, the Latin name is used for iron (ferric and ferrous), copper (cupric and cuprous), tin (stannic and stannous) and lead (plumbic or plumbous). The classical system does not indicate the actual oxidation state. 1. 2. 4. 2 Stock System or Roman Numeral System The actual oxidation state is designated by a Roman Numeral placed in parenthesis immediately following the name of the metal. This is useful especially if the metal has more than two oxidation states. Formula |Classical System |Stock System | |CuCl |Cuprous chloride |copper(I) chloride | |CuCl2 |Cupric chloride |copper(II) chloride | |FeCl2 |ferrous chloride |iron(II) chloride | |FeCl3 |ferric chloride |iron(III) chloride | 1. 3. Compounds Named Like Binary Compounds Few other compounds take an –ide ending, like binary compounds. These include the following: |OH- |hydroxide |O22- |peroxide | |CN- |cyanide | |NH2- |amide | |I3- |triiodide | |N3- |azide | 1. 4. Trivial Names Some common binary compounds are assigned trivial names that have been assigned arbitrarily. These are universally used that they are allowed by the IUPAC rules of nomenclature. H2O |water | |NH3 |ammonia | |PH3 |phosphine | |AsH3 |arsine | 1. 5. Binary Acids A binary compound composed of hydrogen with a more electronegative element can act as a binary acid in water solution. For acids of this types, the prefix hydro- is added, and then the –ide ending is replaced by –ic acid. HF |hydroflouric acid | |HCl |hydrochloric acid | |HBr |hydrobromic acid | |HI |hydroiodic acid | 2. Ternary and Higher Compounds 2. 1 Oxyacids and Salts Oxyacids are composed of a nonmetal with more than one oxidation state, along with hydrogen and oxygen. A salt of oxyacid is formed when one or more of the hydrogen ions of an acid is replaced by a cation. The prefix hypo-, is used to denote the lowest oxidation state of the non metal with the characteristic ending –ous and the prefix per- is used to denote the highest oxidation state with the ending –ic. For acids whose names end in –ous, the corresponding salt ends with the suffix –ite, and those whose names ends in –ic, the name of the salt ends in –ate. Acid |Oxyanion |Salt | |H2SO3 |sulfurous acid |SO32- |sulfite |Na2SO3 |sodium sulfite | |H2SO4 |sulfuric acid |SO42- |sulfate |Fe2SO4 |iron(II) sulfate | |HClO |hypochlorous acid |ClO- |hypochlorite |NaClO |sodium hypochlorite | |HClO2 |chlorous acid |ClO2- |chlorite |KClO2 |potassium chlorite | |HClO3 |chloric acid |ClO3- |chlorate |NaClO3 |sodium chlorate | |HClO4 |perchloric acid |ClO4- |perchlorate |NaClO4 |sodium perchlorate | 2. 2 Salts of Polyprotic Acids These types of salts are formed when one or more hydrogen ions in polyprotic acids or acids with more than one replaceable H+ ion (e. g. , H2S, H3PO4, H2SO4) is/are replaced by metal ions. In naming, the word hydrogen is added to the name of the oxyanion. |NaH2PO4 |sodium dihydrogenphosphate |Na2HPO4 |disodium hydrogenphosphate | |Na3PO4 |trisodium phosphate | |NaHS |sodium hydrogensulfide | EXERCISES 1. Name the following. a. FeI2___________________________________ b. I2___________________________________ c. FeCl3___________________________________ d. Fe2(SO4)3___________________________________ e. FeS___________________________________ f. NCl3___________________________________ g. H2CO3___________________________________ h. CaCO3___________________________________ i.Be2C___________________________________ j. SnSO4___________________________________ k. (NH4)2S___________________________________ l. N2O4___________________________________ 2. Write the correct chemical formula a. Barium chloride___________________ b. Stannous nitrate___________________ c. Stannic nitrate___________________ d. Aluminum carbide___________________ e. Magnesium phosphate___________________ f. Nitrogen dio xide___________________ g. Ammonium sulfate___________________ h. Barium carbonate___________________ i. Sodium carbonate___________________ j. Calcium hydrogen phosphate___________________ k. Disulfur dichloride___________________ 3. Complete the following table Formula |Name as acid |Formula of sodium |Name of salt | | | |salt | | |HNO3 | | | | |HNO2 | | | | |HBrO | | | | |HBrO2 | | | | |HBrO3 | |NaBrO3 | | |HBrO4 | | | | 4. Name the following as binary compounds or as salts from the anions of polyprotic or oxo acids. a. NaIO___________________________________ b. K2HPO4___________________________________ c. Na2SO3___________________________________ d. KMnO4___________________________________ e.BaSO3___________________________________ f. FeSO4___________________________________ g. HClO3___________________________________ h. Na2SO4___________________________________ i. Fe(NO3)3___________________________________ j. Ca(ClO2)2___________________________________ 5. The spaces below rep resent portions of some of the main groups and periods of the periodic table. In the proper squares, write the correct formulas for the chlorides, oxides and sulfates of the elements of Groups 1, 2 and 3, respectively. Likewise, write the formulas of the compounds of sodium, calcium and aluminum with the elements of Groups 6 and 7. Two of the squares have been completed as examples. Period |Group 1 |Group 2 |Group 3 |Group 6 |Group 7 | |2 | LiCl | |(Omit sulfate) | | | | |Li2O | | | | | | |Li2SO4 | | | | | |3 | | | |Na2S | | | | | | |CaS | | | | | | |Al2S3 | | |4 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |5 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | ExPERIMENT WATER OF HYDRATION Most solid chemical compounds will contain some water if they have been exposed to the atmosphere for any length of time.In most cases the water is present in very small amounts, and is mere adsorbed on the surface of the crystals. Other solid compounds contain larger amounts of water that is chemically bound in the crystal. These compounds are usually ionic salts. The water that is present in these salts is called the water of hydration and is usually bound to the cations in the salt. In this experiment you will study some of the properties of hydrates. You will identify the hydrates in a group of compounds, observe the reversibility of the hydration reaction, and test some substances for efflorescence or deliquescence. Finally you will be asked to determine the amount of water lost by a sample of unknown hydrate on heating.From this amount, if given the formula or the molar mass of the anhydrous sample, you will be able to calculate the formula of the hydrate itself. MATERIALS AND APPARATUS |watch glass |iron ring |crucible tongs | |test tubes |iron stand |triangular clay | |Bunsen burner |crucible |desiccators | PROCEDURE 1. Identification of Hydrates. Place about 0. g of the compounds listed below in small, dry test tubes, one compound to a tube. Observe carefully the behavior of each c ompound when you heat it gently with a burner flame. If droplets of water condense on the cool upper walls of the test tube, this is evidence that the compound may be a hydrate. Note the nature and the color of the residue. Let the tube cool and try to dissolve the residue in a few cm3 of water, warming very gently if necessary. A true hydrate will tend to dissolve in water, producing a solution with a color very similar to that of the original hydrate. If the compound is a carbohydrate, it will give off water on heating and will tend to char.The solution of the residue in water will often be caramel colored. Nickel chloride Potassium chloride Sodium tetraborate (borax) Sucrose Potassium dichromate Barium chloride 2. Reversibility of Hydration. Gently heat a few crystals ~0. 3 g, of hydrated cobalt (II) chloride, CoCl2(6H2O, in an evaporating dish until the color change appears to be complete. Dissolve the residue in the evaporating dish in a few cm3 of water from your wash bottle. Heat the resulting solution to boiling (CAUTION! ), and carefully boil it to dryness. Note any color changes. Put the evaporating dish on the lab bench and let it cool. 3. Deliquescence and Efflorescence.Place a few crystals of each of the compounds listed below on separate watch glasses and put them next to the dish of CoCl2 prepared in Part B. Depending upon their composition and the relative humidity (amount of moistures in air), the samples may gradually either lose water of hydration to, or pick up water from, the air. They may also remain unaffected. Any changes in crystal structure, color, or appearance of wetness should be noted. Observe the samples occasionally during the rest of the laboratory period. Since the changes tend to occur slowly, your instructor may have you compare your samples with some that were set out in the laboratory a day or two earlier. Na2CO3(10H2O (washing soda) CaCl2KAl(SO4)2(12H2O (alum) CuSO4(5H2O 4. Percent Water in a Hydrate. Clean a porcelain cr ucible and its cover with 6 M HNO3. Any stains that are not removed by this treatment will not interfere with this experiment. Rinse the crucible and cover with distilled water. Put the crucible with its cover slightly ajar on a clay triangle and heat with a burner flame, gently at first and then to redness for about 2 minutes. Allow the crucible and cover to cool, and then weigh them to 0. 001 g on an analytical balance. Handle the crucible with clean crucible tongs. Obtain a sample of unknown hydrate from the stockroom and place about a gram of sample in the crucible.Weigh the crucible, cover, and sample on the balance. Put the crucible on the clay triangle, with the cover in an off-center position to allow the escape of water vapor. Heat again gently at first and then strongly, keeping the bottom of the crucible at red heat for about 10 minutes. Center the cover on the crucible and let it cool to room temperature. Weigh the cooled crucible along with its cover and contents. Exami ne the solid residue. Add water until the crucible is two thirds full and stir. Warm gently if the residue does not dissolve readily. Does the residue appear to be soluble in water? DATA AND OBSERVATIONS A. Identification of Hydrates |Water appears |Color of residue |Water soluble |Hydrate | |Nickel chloride | | | | | |Potassium chloride | | | | | |Sodium tetraborate | | | | | |Sucrose | | | | | |Potassium dichromate | | | | | |Barium chloride | | | | | B. Reversibility of Hydration Summarize your observations on CoCl2(6H2O. Is the dehydration and hydration of CoCl2 reversible? C. Deliquescence and Efflorescence |Observation |Conclusion | |Na2CO3(10H2O | | | |CaCl2 | | | |KAl(SO4)2(12H2O (alum) | | | |CuSO4(5H2O | | | D. Percent water in a Hydrate |Mass of crucible and cover | | |Mass of crucible, cover, and solid hydrate | | |Mass of crucible, cover, and residue | | Mass of solid hydrate | | |Mass of residue | | |Mass of water lost | | |Percentage of water in the unknown hydrate | | |Formula mass of anhydrous salt (if furnished) | | |Number of moles of water per mole of unknown hydrate | | ExPERIMENT GASESThis experiment illustrates three of the common gas laws: Boyle’s law, Charles and Gay-Lussac’s law and Graham’s law. Boyle’s law states that the volume, V, of a certain quantity of an ideal gas is inversely proportional to its pressure, P, at a given temperature and amount of gas. Charles’ and Gay-Lussac’s law states that the volume of a gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature, at a certain pressure and amount of gas. Graham’s law describes that the velocity of an ideal gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its molar mass. The first two gas laws will be validated using plots of the properties involved. Graham’s law will be determined by comparing the velocities of two sample gases. MATERIALS AND APPARATUS Glass syringe |250 or 400-mL beaker |Black cardboard | |Syringe hol der |Iron stand |Ruler | |Thermometer |Iron ring |Graphing paper | |Glycerol |Wire gauze |Concentrated HCl | |Modeling clay |Glass tubing

A Most Special Person in My Life Essay

Except my family, there is one person, Thu Cuu, who I will always remember and respect because of her personalities, she is kind and also she is the one I love. Nothing is impossible with her no matter what is it, where is it and why is it, that is what I learn from her. A girl is perfect for every situation; she does not need to be dazzling, but people still have looked at her. Basically, I think every man in this world wants this lady to become his wife, even me. Surely, her personalities can make people who do not like to talk will talk, and her kindness can make everybody respects her, even that is the guy who hates her the most. In my opinion, it is hard to find one like her in this century, whether there is at least one or not, I still always think of her. First of all, her personalities attract me when we first met each other, I really admire her. She is friendly and kind of cute with her voice and smile to keep people around her. She can be a center in a crowd easily. I like her at the first time we met; we talk about a lot of things just like we are best friends. That is also the first time I feel free with a girl, because I usually stuck when I try to talk to a girl. Read more: The person I admire the most is my mother  essay She is very sociable, that is the reason why she has a lot of friends. Moreover, she likes to play no matter what kind of games. You can image that when a girl play some games that only reserve for boys like bias, she can play and play even better than boys. The trick is she does with all her heart and forgets what people say about her, just be happy when she plays. She respects friendship and loves her family. I am very sure that she is going to do anything to protect them. For example, I remembered clearly one time that she was late for a party and I yelled on her, then we altercated. Soon, I found out that she was late because she had to pick up her mom from work; it was not her fault. I did not know that, but the first person said sorry was her. Later I knew that the first person said sorry, it did not mean that person was wrong, it meant that person respected relationship between them more than other. I felt like I was guilty; I apologized her, instead of still getting angry on me, then she smiled with me like nothing never happened Secondly, her kindness can make a most kindness person must be jealous. She is very kind for everyone, not only her friends, just because that is who she is. Imagine that when you go to the gas station and someone goes to ask you to give them some money, because their car is out of gas and they are out of money. Certainly, you will look at their car, what they wear and think is it a trick. In opposite way, while you are busy at exploration, she already gives them money, because one time she told me helping people is the happiest thing in the world. She does not care much about it is a trick or not, even if it is a trick, she is still happy. Moreover, she is a good listener. Usually, when I am sad, or any kind of feeling, I will share with her, she will be there to hear them. Not just listening, she also gives me a best advice. I believe that she never tell anyone else what I tell her, she extremely knows how to keep secret. That is why people believe her mostly. Sometimes, I get angry on her because of my stuffs, but she is still quite, listens and never complains a word. Say, for other example, I got 35/100 on a physical exam; I was very sad and disappointed. When she knew that, she made a plan to revive me. She knew what I like and I do not like. Something I like but she does not, but she accepted it and did it for me. We went to the movie theater, went to eat my favorite food and got my major drinks. We went to play skating and skiing, then heading to the beach. Beach was my favorite place; I usually went there when I was in feeling, but she did not like the beach at much. We went down to the beach and high to the mountain. Really, that was the funniest day with me, we talked a lot, I forgot why I was sad and headed to the future. Thu Cuu is the best Last but not least, Thu Cuu is the one I love, a hundred percent surely. One day, a girl appeared without many attractive characteristics who changed my life. She was not like any other girls I met before. When I was stuck in the dark and very disappointed, she stood there in front of me with her smile such as a brightest star and showed me which ways were right or wrong. She told me that I did not know what was waiting for me ahead; I got to learn how to fight it. For example, at the final time last semester, my family had some problems like my brother sold his car and went to Vietnam without asking my parents a word, my dad and my mom’s jobs were in trouble, and my study was more difficult. I was blind and disappointed. At that time, there was no one helping me except one, Thu Cuu. Side by side, she and I figured out every problem and solved it like she helped me to contact and persuade my brother to come back here. She helped me to study, kept me in calm and bought me drinks and food, so I could focus on the exams. She also had her exams, but she still spent her time to help me. Honestly, I knew this was the person I could live with forever. Another time, her friend from other state came here to visit her. I was jealous. Without her, I felt like I was in the hole. I was easy to get angry because of nothing, I just wanted that she was only for me, and I knew that I loved her. Beside her, I always feel happy and love life. One of the most beautiful things about Thu is her smile, if she just smiles with me, I am very sure that all of my stress will be gone, also it is the most reason why I love her. A girl without many attractions who I think of most of my time always stays with me when I am in trouble. Totally, she is a hundred percent perfect. After all, Thu Cuu is the only one I will treat with all my heart. She is now such as my family member that I never want to lose. No matter what people say about her, in my mind, she is always a girl I first met and loved. Because of her personalities, I know that nothing is impossible in this world. She helped me to be able to understand how to be a good man. Her kindness brings me much knowledge of treatment. That helps me how to get respected from people who hate me. Love is the most beautiful thing in the world that people do not use machine to know, and it will be prettier if you love a person who you never forget.

Azerbaijan Essay Example for Free

Azerbaijan Essay The country was among the birthplaces of mankind and is located at the heart of ancient civilizations. Furthermore the country is known to be among the most progressive and secular Islamic societies. Aside from having been the first Muslim country to have operas, theater plays, and a democratic republic, Azerbaijan today is among the Muslim countries where support for secularism and tolerance is the highest. The Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, the first democratic and secular republic in the Muslim world, was established in 1918, but was incorporated into the Soviet Union in 1920. Azerbaijan regained independence in 1991. The Constitution of Azerbaijan does not declare an official religion but the majority of people adhere to the Shia branch of Islam, although Muslim identity tends to be based more on culture and ethnicity rather than religion and Azerbaijan remains as one of the most liberal majority-Muslim nations. The pre-Turkic Azerbaijani population spoke an Iranian language called the Old Azeri language, which was gradually replaced by a Turkic language, now known as the Azerbaijani language from the 11th century onward until it became completely extinct in the 16th century. To distinguish it from the Turkic Azerbaijani or Azeri language, this Iranian language, is designated as the Azeri language (or Old Azeri language), because the Turkic language and people are also designated as â€Å"Azeri† in the Persian language. Azerbaijan is in the South Caucasus region of Eurasia, straddling Western Asia and Eastern Europe. It lies between latitudes 38 ° and 42 ° N, and longitudes 44 ° and 51 ° E. The total length of Azerbaijan’s land borders is 2,648 km (1,645 mi), of which 1007 kilometers are with Armenia, 756 kilometers with Iran, 480 kilometers with Georgia, 390 kilometers with Russia and 15 kilometers with Turkey. The coastline stretches for 800 km (497 mi), and the length of the widest area of the Azerbaijani section of the Caspian Sea is 456 km (283 mi). The territory of Azerbaijan extends 400 km (249 mi) from north to south, and 500 km (311 mi) from west to east. Three physical features dominate Azerbaijan: the Caspian Sea, whose shoreline forms a natural boundary to the east; the Greater Caucasus mountain range to the north; and the extensive flatlands at the country’s center. There are also three mountain ranges, the Greater and Lesser Caucasus, and the Talysh Mountains, together covering approximately 40 percent of the country. The main water sources are the surface waters. However, only 24 of the 8,350 rivers are greater than 100 km (62 mi) in length. All the rivers drain into the Caspian Sea in the east of the country. Since the independence of Azerbaijan in 1991, the Azerbaijani government has taken drastic measures to preserve the environment of Azerbaijan. But national protection of the environment started to truly improve after 2001 when the state budget increased due to new revenues provided by the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline. Within four years protected areas doubled and now make up eight percent of the country’s territory. Since 2001 the government has set up seven large reserves and almost doubled the sector of the budget earmarked for environmental protection. Azerbaijan’s diverse landscape affects the ways air masses enter the country. The Greater Caucasus protects the country from direct influences of cold air masses coming from the north. That leads to the formation of subtropical climate on most foothills and plains of the country. Meanwhile, plains and foothills are characterized by high solar radiation rates. Rivers and lakes form the principal part of the water systems of Azerbaijan; they were formed over a long geological timeframe and changed significantly throughout that period. This is particularly evidenced by fragments of ancient rivers found throughout the country. The country’s water systems are continually changing under the influence of natural forces and human introduced industrial activities. Artificial rivers (canals) and ponds are a part of Azerbaijan’s water systems. From the water supply point, Azerbaijan is below the average in the world with approximately 100,000 m? year of water per km?. The first reports on the richness and diversity of animal life in Azerbaijan can be found in travel notes of Eastern travelers. Animal carvings on architectural monuments, ancient rocks and stones survived up to the present times. The first information on the animal kingdom of Azerbaijan was collected during the visits of naturalists to Azerbaijan in 17th century. Unlike fauna, the concept of animal kingdom covers not only the types of animals, but also the number of individual species. There are 106 species of mammals, 97 species of fish, 363 species of birds, 10 species of amphibians and 52 species of reptiles which have been recorded and classified in Azerbaijan. The national animal of Azerbaijan is the Karabakh horse, a mountain-steppe racing and riding horse endemic to Azerbaijan. The Karabakh horse has a reputation for its good temper, speed, elegance and intelligence. It is one of the oldest breeds, with ancestry dating to the ancient world. Azerbaijan’s vegetation consists of more than 4,500 species of higher plants. Due the unique climate in Azerbaijan, the vegetation is much richer in the number of species than the flora of the other republics of the South Caucasus. Azerbaijan is divided into 10 economic regions; 66 rayons and 77 cities of which 11 are under the direct authority of the republic. Also, Azerbaijan includes the Autonomous Republic of Nakhchivan. The President of Azerbaijan appoints the governors of these units, while the government of Nakhchivan is elected and approved by the parliament of Nakhchivan Self-ruling Republic. Tourism is an important part of the economy of Azerbaijan. The country’s large abundance of natural and cultural attractions make it an attractive destination of visitors. The country was a well-known tourist spot in the 1980s; yet, the Nagorno-Karabakh War during the 1990s crippled the tourist industry and damaged the image of Azerbaijan as a tourist destination. It was not until 2000s that the tourism industry began to recover, and the country has since experienced a high rate of growth in the number of tourist visits and overnight stays. In the recent years, Azerbaijan has also becoming a popular destination for religious, spa, and health care tourism. Around 95 percent of the populations are Muslims. 85% of the Muslims are Shia Muslims and 15% Sunni Muslims, and the Republic of Azerbaijan has the Second highest Shia population percentage after Iran. There are some other faiths practiced among the different ethnic groups within the country. By article 48 of its Constitution, Azerbaijan is a secular state and ensures religious freedom. Of the nation’s religious minorities, Christians are mostly Russian and Georgian Orthodox and Armenian Apostolic (almost all Armenians live in the break-away region of Nagorno-Karabakh). The culture of Azerbaijan has developed as a result of many influences. Today, Western influences, including globalized consumer culture, are strong. National traditions are well preserved in the country. Some of the main elements of the Azerbaijani culture are: music, literature, folk dances and art, cuisine, architecture, cinematography and Novruz Bayram. The latter is the traditional celebration of the ancient New Year. Novruz is a family holiday. The traditional cuisine is famous for richness of vegetables and greens used seasonally in the dishes. Fresh herbs, including mint, dill, basil, parsley, tarragon, leeks, chives, thyme, marjoram, green onion, and watercress, are very popular and often accompany main dishes on the table. Climatic diversity and fertility of the land are reflected in the national dishes, which are based on fish from the Caspian Sea, local meat (mainly mutton and beef), and an abundance of seasonal vegetables and greens. Saffron-rice ploy is the flagship food in Azerbaijan and black tea is the national beverage. Azerbaijan–Turkey relations have always been strong with the two often being described as â€Å"one nation with two states† by the ex-president of Azerbaijan Abulfaz Elchibey due to a common culture and history, and the mutual intelligibility of Turkish and Azerbaijani. Turkey has been a staunch supporter of Azerbaijan in its efforts to consolidate its independence, preserve its territorial integrity and realize its economic potential arising from the rich natural resources of the Caspian Sea. The countries share a short border, with the Aras River separating Turkey from the Nakhchivan exclave for just a few kilometers. Today, the relationship with Azerbaijan represents the â€Å"most important bilateral partnership† in current Turkish foreign policy while Azerbaijani foreign policy affirms its relationship with Turkey as one of its most enduring bilateral relationships, as evidenced in aligned political affairs, mutual cooperation in the areas of trade, commerce, finance, technology, academics, as well as the arts and sciences; the sharing of government and military intelligence, and joint combat operations and peace keeping missions carried out between Azerbaijani Armed Forces and Turkish Armed Forces. Azerbaijan. (2018, Oct 26).

200 Villagers Houses Burnt Down Again Near Barrick Gold Mine in Papua Essay

200 Villagers Houses Burnt Down Again Near Barrick Gold Mine in Papua New Guinea - Essay Example This behavior of the national court is known to be a result of Barrick Limited request. The expected impact on the company as a result of such unethical behavior will have severe impact on the company’s reputation, sales and stock prices as it has violated human rights of the citizens of Papua New Guinea and also demonstrated lack of environmental responsibility. However, this extent of this impact depends on the extent of public awareness and international community/communities about this issue. Barrick Gold Corporation cannot be considered as an ethical corporation as it has violated the human rights of the villagers of Papua New Guinea and also has failed to do business in environmentally friendly and sustainable manner. Barrick Gold operates its but Porgera subsidy as a joint venture with the local government. It is possible to suggest that actions undertaken against the local citizens of Porgera village were initiated solely by the government of Papua New Guinea, however, it doesn’t relieve the company from ethical responsibility. One of the competitors of Barrick Gold is Sumatra Copper & Gold plc. This company has established a detailed Code of Business Conduct, which covers â€Å"a wide range of business practices and procedures† and sets up guiding ethical principles for all employees and managers of the company (Sumatracoppergold.com, 2014). Also, the company seeks to minimize the environmental risks at the company’s sites and comply (Sumatracoppergold.com, 2014), while Barrick Porgera Gold mine obviously fails to do so, despite its claims (Barrick.com, 2014). In order to address the problem there should be undertaken some serious measures and initiatives. First of all the company has to adjust its financial plans to the sustainability principles, which pursue not only economic benefits, but also social and environmental benefits. Thus, the company has to adjust the whole strategy to become socially and

Critical analysis of Role of Regional Trade Agreements for the Essay

Critical analysis of Role of Regional Trade Agreements for the Developments of its Member Countries - Essay Example The World Bank also cautions that RTAs improve economic development in one country and negatively impact economic development in another member.3 Therefore RTAs can facilitate uneven development among the member states. This will occur when RTAs divert trade from some member states and divert trade to others.4 This research paper provides a critical analysis of the role that RTAs play in the developments of its member states. A definition of RTA and its historical developments are examined first. The role of RTAs in member state development will be examined in greater detail with specific reference to the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) and African Regional Trade Agreements and the role that these RTAs play in the development of their respective states. Contents Abstract 2 Contents 3 Introduction 4 I.Definition and Overview of RTAs 5 A.Definition 5 B.Overview of RTAs 7 II.Development of GCC States 14 III.African RTAs 19 Analysis/Conclusion 25 Bibliography 27 Introduction There are ess entially two opposing views relative to the role that RTAs play in its members’ development. ... two decades RTAs have emerged as the â€Å"defining features of the modern economy† and is largely seen as a significant influence relative to globalization.6 By the year end 2005, the World Trade Organization (WTO) had received notification of at least 250 RTAs.7 Since 1995, the WTO has received at least 15 RTA notifications each year as opposed to just 3 RTA notifications annually prior to 1995.8 The proliferation in RTAs therefore suggest that the countries engaging in regionalism have a positive vision of what RTAs can bring them in terms of development. This paper examines the perceived developmental benefits of RTAs and critically evaluates whether these perceptions are realistic. I. Definition and Overview of RTAs In order to effectively analyze the role that RTAs play in the development of its member states, a definition and an overview of the nature and development of RTAs are necessary. It is necessary to understand what RTAs are, how they function and what motivates the formation of RTAs. With this understanding of RTAs, their role in the development of member states can be examined. In other words, development will depend entirely on the developmental objective behind the formation of a RTA. For example if a RTA is formed in order to improve and develop the member states’ economy, the role of the RTA in that regard will have to be examined. If a RTA is formed for the purpose of harmonizing regional economic and security cohesion, the role of that RTA on development by member states will have to be examined. A. Definition In simple terms a RTA is defined as an agreement among â€Å"neighbouring states† in which tariffs and other trade restrictions are reduced or removed.9 RTAs are also defined as: †¦actions by governments to liberalise or facilitate trade

The notion that Internally Displaced Persons are forced migrants Essay

The notion that Internally Displaced Persons are forced migrants denied rights to claim asylum - Essay Example The category we are interested with is the people who have been exiled within their own country. Moving on further one more that is to be known is why such migration do takes place. This can be divided into three broad classes. The first of it being the most common and easily viewed reasons keeping in view the present situations. People are forced to leave their shelter and peaceful life when their own state and government fails to provide adequate security to their people. Ibrahim, M. (2005) As a result the populace is left with no reasons to but leave their country unwillingly. Second, comes the cause when people are made to leave their homes for the so- called development the state undertakes, in many cases the people are initially promised to be given a place, a shelter but it turns out to be false. It generally incorporates in it the infrastructural improvement like dams, roads, canals, infrastructure expansion, and urban extension and so on. Finally, we have the persons who hav e been left homeless due to the uncalled natural disasters like floods, cyclones, torrential rainfalls, deadly hailstorms and the list may go on. In the recent the frequency of these calamities have led it to become one of the most prominent reason for the internally displaced people or what we may on a general base term as forced expatriates. Moreover, now we take up internally displaced people as to how they come up in this category. It is one of the most misunderstood categories. It is generally confused with refugees although both of them have and entirely different concept. Therefore we first we should have a proper idea as to what refugees are and what makes them different than the persons who are displaced within their own country. Refugees have been ensured protection with the help of different treaties, laws and conventions which also guarantees the refugees or foreign expatriates rights in any part of the world. As the UN has elaborated, refugee is term which would be give n to those entire people who are made to leave their homes and go beyond their country’s borders i.e. they move out of the place of their birth or nationality and settle in some foreign lands. Indra, D. (ed) (1999). The refugees have been recognized since the olden times, they are product of wars or foreign domination over a place. Since 1984 there has been great development so that plea of refugees can be heard and their needs can be looked after. We have many governmental and independent bodies working for refugees. On the other hand, when it comes to the IDP’s we see that they are hardly looked after. Koser K. (2007). They are not given proper rights nor are they looked after by their own state. Currently, there are present fifty-two countries, which have been inflicted by this problem. Amongst all these countries Africa tops the list with the most internally displaced people due to the ethnic and religious violence which has been ongoing for quite long. We do not h ave many organizations that are there to help these people who are made to leave their own homes and have to move some other part of the country but they are not treated in the way they should be as the citizens of the country. We have an acronym for them which DPRE’s a term used to refer such people by the governmental and military organizations. Cohen, R (2006). This is an increasing problem but has not been given much importance however, in the nineties

Is it reasonable to conclude that aggression is an inevitable and Essay

Is it reasonable to conclude that aggression is an inevitable and inescapable part of our lives Discuss with reference to psychological theory and research - Essay Example (cited in Angell and Banks, 1984, p. 115) This argument follows the line of thinking that men, left to their natural state, will be at each other’s throats, and life will be nasty, brutish and short. For Hobbes, this constant conflict stemmed from the nature of man which is characterized by selfishness, greed and a perpetual concern with satisfying his own desires. Religion reinforces this thought as it emphasizes that the aggressive nature of man is a consequence of his falling from divine grace in the Garden of Eden. It was St. Augustine who explored this aspect immensely, taking particular note on man’s capacity for mayhem and slaughter. On psychological perspective, there are numerous theories that seek to explain the incidence – the origins and triggers – of human aggression. Foremost of these are the instinct theories, which treat aggression as one of the human instincts or that innate tendency to behave in a certain way. Freud, for one, argued that we are born with two opposing instincts: the life instinct and the death instinct; and that the latter leads us to be aggressive. (Cashman, 1999, p. 15) For Freud, aggressiveness is linked to how life instinct counters death instinct and that the drive created by the conflict of these instincts is channeled away from the self and toward others. Overt aggression is hence an outcome of internal aggressive drives and that a person drives satisfaction by releasing or venting it to other people. (Zillmann, 1979, p. 116) Freudian analogy places the release of aggression drives as a human need though not necessarily overt aggression or aggression towards other people. Another psychological school which believes that aggression is part of human nature is ethology or the study of the animal behavior. In the ethological perspective, humans evolved with a fighting instinct and that it occurred through

Is it justifiable to continue to have public funding for the BBC in Essay

Is it justifiable to continue to have public funding for the BBC in the twenty-first y century - Essay Example In fact, some of them may even suggest that public funding for the BBC should be eliminated and it should be asked to compete with other channels on a commercial basis as that should be the basis of all television broadcasting. However, it must be noted that the charter of the BBC as well as the government’s view of the BBC makes it a public service and the nature of a public service is such that the public has to pay for it. This means that the primary source of funding for the BBC comes from the licensing fees paid by every television owner in the UK. The trustees of the BBC are appointed by the government yet it is not really answerable to the government for its news reports and the coverage that it provides. The extent of the BBC’s well noted independence is largely controlled by the regulations which the British government places on the broadcaster. The funding for the BBC is supposed to provide money for high quality broadcast material suitable for the British public but these broadcasts also have to compete with other channels in the market who have obtained broadcasting licenses from the UK government and run on a commercial basis supporting themselves through advertisements. However, the demands placed on the BBC as the flag bearing media company of the UK are quite different from the expectations which people have from the competition since the BBC is the only media outlet for which the people pay as a public service (Cox, 2004). This funding does not make the BBC a government mouth piece because even though the BBC receives its money from the government, it has a past which is full of conflict with the government to the point that at several times in history the British government of the time seriously considered taking over the channel (Cox, 2004). The BBC remains a semi-independent source of news and information while the Royal Charter gives it a mandate to obtain public

The decine and recovery of the US Steel industry Essay

The decine and recovery of the US Steel industry - Essay Example with foreign steel. However, this had significant, lingering after-effects that did not produce nearly the results expected or hoped for. Additionally, the power of labor unions added significantly to the decline of this industry during the same period, something that is currently being redeveloped by the U.S. political system. The steel industry has been plagued with lowered demand for steel products in construction and in automotive due to a variety of global economic factors being felt across the globe. This report highlights all of the factors behind the decline and the current slow recovery of the steel industry, including the aforementioned tariff and labor union influence, the existence of increasing pension payouts for Baby Boomer retirees, changing consumer and industrial customer buying behaviors, changing construction patterns globally, as well as the influence of Wall Street on this industry. Decline Factors – Tariffs and Labor Impacts In the early 2000s, the U.S. steel industry was plagued with considerable problems that were causing significant disruptions to profitability. First, there were many bubbles occurring in the stock market during this period that were eroding consumer confidence and reducing construction for materials requiring steel in their construction, such as automotive products and various consumer appliances. In an effort to help companies that were on the verge of bankruptcy during this period, President Bush imposed import tariffs as an effort to slow illegal dumping of foreign-made steel and also to boost profitability for these struggling industries. These tariffs consisted of a 15 to 30 percent commission by early 2002, however the end results of this effort were the production of internal disputes with domestic steel industry ownership who felt that this limited competitive edge and also made foreign buyers seek new market opportunities for the export of their own domestically-made steel (Blecker, 2002). Therefore, e ven though it represented more opportunities for domestic production to increase, it limited the scope of steel-related partnerships with disgruntled foreign steel producers and limited their expansion potential across the globe. Further, the backlash of various trade disputes did, indeed, force steel manufacturers outside of the United States to begin the process of looking for new export opportunities, thus eroding even more opportunities for this industry in the process. Additionally, during this time period, less regulatory presence in the steel industry gave considerable authority to various labor unions, such as the United Steelworkers of America (USWA), which began demanding higher wage increases for workers and therefore eroding profitability in an already struggling industry (Ikenson, 2002). What was occurring was that steel industries were already experiencing lowered demand for products both domestically and abroad and were on the verge of bankruptcy at the time. The powe r of these unions was exerted in an effort to prevent, at any cost, plant closings in an effort to save American jobs with the USWA. These efforts were ultimately successful, in conjunction with the new tariffs imposed, and forced steel industry owners to continue production and operate, essentially, in the red for a period of years until new regulatory powers began to erode the power of these labor unions. Today, there

Google Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Google - Essay Example This paper describes the Google search engine and tells more about Google Inc. The company started from nearly 2 million websites in its database in 1998, which grew up to a trillion websites just after twelve years showing the speed of the growth of this search engine. No other search engine has shown such a rapid increase in its website database as yet which is one of the many signs for Google to remain the market leader at least for the next decade. Another noticeable point is that the interface of the Google search engine is very user-friendly. Users can find their required web pages using customized setting. If a user wants to find some book, he/she can search that book using ‘Google Books’ search. Similarly, if a user wants to find a scholarly journal, he/she can search it using ‘Google Scholar’ search. Google also makes use of rating mechanism, which helps in retrieving the most relevant websites. Other search engines can hardly differentiate between the relevant and irrelevant web pages because of which they generate all those websites in which the key words exist regardless of their relevance. On the other hand, Google makes use of rank-ordering system, which puts the most relevant websites at the top positions. Google does not rank pages on the basis amount of information that they contain about any particular topic, rather it ranks pages based on the amount of relevant data or information. This feature also distinguishes Google from other search engines and points towards Google’s dominance in internet search over the next decade. Answer No. 4 Google’s attempts to launch new products have been remarkable and successful so far. Whatever products Google has launched until now have played a considerable role in increasing the yearly revenue and net income of the comp any. The thing is that there is always a well-planned strategy behind the launch of every Google product which ensures long-term success of the product in local and international markets. The company makes use of latest and well-equipped information technology infrastructure to create new products. Some of the main products which have proven to be highly productive for the company include Google search tools, language tools, advertising services, publishing tools, communication tools, and Google statistical tools. These are just the broad categories of Google products. The actual product line includes a wide range of products under each category. Google has also entered the world of web browsers, email, and mobile internet. From the usage rates of all of these products, it is evident that the company has been successful so far in each of these fields. For example, nearly 100 million people use

Native American Indians Then and Now Essay Example for Free

Native American Indians Then and Now Essay Native American Indians Native American Indians have not changed much in hundreds of years. The Natives still have the same belief as they did from the beginning of time. They are still forced to live on reserved lands that do not seem livable and are in worse conditions now than ever before. Even though people think due to casinos that the American Indians have it made, the Natives are still being mistreated, many tribes are well below poverty levels, highest in death rates, have the most number of preventable diseases, the highest of teen suicide than anywhere in the Nation. Native American Indians traditions go back to the beginning of time. The Native religion is more about sacred and ceremonies. The Native people do not have a word for religion it is more a way of life to them than a religion. According to one researcher, â€Å"There is not one Native tradition to represent Native religion. Just as there are numerous Christian beliefs the Native people have many different beliefs. The Native ceremonies are so similar that it is impossible to discuss them as one† (Burbar, and Vernon 2006) The Natives have always been connected to the lands. Most of their ceremonies and sacred objects come from the lands and has everything to do with how they feel about them. Native people do not believe they can own the lands that people are merely caretakers of it. The Native believe that the land is a gift from the Creator, put here to give them tools for survival. They believe if they take something from the land that they must give thanks for the gift given. They do this by offering sacred herbs, prayer, and dance. Native American Indians The Native people give each member roles to keep the villages running smoothly. The Native men hunt and protect the village, while the women gather fruits, berries, and keep the camps, the children gathered wood, help clean hides, look after the younger children and clean the camps. One researcher studies tells stories of how some tribes are at certain times in the tribal life. â€Å"On the Northwest coast, young women were taught that the wives of Makah whale hunters must very still in bed while their husbands hunted, since their movement influenced the whale’s behaviors. In a Navajo story Black God had all animals penned up until his wife opened the gate. The animals escaped and thereafter had to be hunted, (Kidwell, 1998). All of this became threatened with the arrival of foreigners. With the foreigners coming and bringing there Christian beliefs the Native traditions were going to be challenged. With the start of the White Mans government the Natives faced having several ceremonial rights taken away for hundreds of years. The Natives were stopped from worshiping in manners they were accustomed. The Natives were forced to worship the Christian belief and if they refused they were put to death or imprisoned. Many of the Native traditional ceremonies were stopped completely. Two of those rights at this time were the Ghost Dance, and the Sun dance. The Natives found ways around this; they would go to places they knew white men would not to have ceremonies that had been band. Due to so many of the Native rights being taken away the Natives formed a group called â€Å"American Indian Movement† (AIM). AIM in the early years was called â€Å"Indian wars†. After fighting the government for several years and fighting for their right to religious freedom President Jimmy Carter signed the American Indian Religious freedom Act, Native American Indians (AIRFA). Burke, and Vernon, 2006), AIRFA was one of the very few times when congress gave the Natives the legislative right to worship in the manner he or she feels fit. (Burke, and Vernon, 2006). After a few more decades of being mistreated and having rights taken and treaties broken Aim reformed again. AIM’s early and best known leaders, Russell Means, Dennis Banks, Clyde and Vernon Bellecourt, these Native men formed together to fight for the rights of all indigenous peoples across the world. According to one research study, the â€Å"Trail of Broken Treaties† was â€Å"AIM’s first national pretest event of the 1970’s. AIM’s best-known and controversial protest action began February 1973 in Wounded Knee, South Dakota, a small town in Pine Ridge Reservation†, (Encyclopedia Race and Racism p. 82) better known now as the â€Å"Siege at Wounded Knee†. The siege lasted 71 days and when it was over several of the AIM members were arrested for causing riots. Many of the AIM leaders spent years in legislation, exile, or prison. One of the best known cases is that of Leonard Peltier. Peltier was imprisoned for killing two FBI agents. Several years later it was proven that Peltier did not receive a fare trial. Much of the evidence was not allowed in court and was suppressed from the jurors. After decades of trying to get Peltier freed from prison he was finally deemed the only American political prisoner in 1984. Peltier is still in prison to this day and the Natives are still fighting for his release. A more resent less known case August 22, 2008 of the Natives not receiving justice is the case of Robert Whirlwind Horse 23 and Calonnie Randall 26. These two Natives was struck and killed by a drunk driver Timothy Hotz while walking on a reservation road. This was Hotz Native American Indians fourth DUI, one year prior Hotz had his third DUI. After striking the Natives Hotz continued to drive home without stopping. The next morning Hotz noticed hair on his bumper and turned him self in to authorities. Mr. Hotz received 51 months for killing the Native men. This infuriated the Natives once again. (Means, Russell, Republic of Lakota 2009, April 22). Another case of a young native boy went to the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) and was upset at the justice received over Hotz actions and was outraged. He shot one bullet into the radiator of the BIA agent’s car and received 20 years imprisonment. The Natives are still being forced to live on reservations. The reservations are in such horrendous conditions almost all the reservations are in worse conditions than most third world countries, (Republic of the Lakotah, conditions); According to one Native â€Å"It is like living in Hattie’s†,(Means Russell). The Pine Ridge Reservation in South Dakota is one such reservation. â€Å"The United States Government has not upheld many of it promises to the Lakotah people and the results to this is astonishing†, (Means, Russell, Republic of the Lakotah). Due to the conditions the Lakotah people are forced to live in has caused them to have the highest death rates than anywhere else in the Nation. Reservations across the country are well below the poverty level. (Figure 3 below) The average life span of a Lakotah Male is 44 years. (Figure 1 below) The Lakotah people have the most preventable diseases than anywhere in the nation. Much of the disease could be stopped if the government would allow the Natives have vaccines and medications. The teen suicide rates are the highest of anywhere in the nation.

Comaprison Theorist Essay Example for Free

Comaprison Theorist Essay Sigmund Freud’s approach to personality would be and still is a debate within our society today. Researchers and psychologist are still observing his approach and there are still unanswered questions. One approach Freud did not use was how our society and culture would effect the person we all would become. The one thing that most Neo-Freudian’s agreed on was that early childhood experiences would have an effect on your personality development. Freud laid the path for psychologist and many would take what they learned from him and go in their own direction. Alfred Adler was one Neo-Freudian that disagreed with Freud. Their disagreement was not only professional it became personal. Adler approach was called the individual psychology. He helped us understand personality with striving for superiority, how our parents were an influence on our personalities as children and the effect of our birth order. Adler like Freud believed that your earlier years were important when it came to shaping your personality when you became and adult. One thing Adler believed is that the parent’s role would affect the child. The first thing parents should not do is give the child too much attention. By stating this Adler meant pampering. He believed that pampering would take away children’s independence. They become more dependent on people, and they don’t learn how to make their own decisions. He believed that they should be able to make mistakes and make their own decisions, because this would be good for them and they would learn to be more dependent. Another mistake  parents make stated Adler was they would not give children enough attention, which would lead to neglect. If children don’t receive enough attention they would grow up to be distant, and would not know how to be intimate or carry on a relationship. Adler was the first psychologist to mention that the order in which you were born would shape your personality. Comparison of Theorists3 Carl Jung also would leave Freud and Freud would feel betrayed by that. He took him leaving personal as well. Jung was curious with religious concepts. He would take Freud’s idea of unconscious and put his own twist to it. We as people would inherit our physical characteristics, but Jung believed we inherited unconscious psychic characterics as well. After Jung left Freud he would travel around the world and study other cultures and this is were he would base his theory on. He relied a lot on ancient mythology and Eastern religion. Jung believed that the collective unconscious is made up by something called the primordial images. These images would help people respond to our society in a different way, there called archetypes. Basically Jung would describe the collective unconscious as the concept of instincts. He also believed that every man had a feminine side and female had a masculine side. He had three archetypes that he spoke on the anima which is the feminine side of the male, and the animus is the masculine side of female. Stating this, Jung was the first psychologist to point out people would have both male and female characteristics within themselves. Another archetype he had was called the shadow. The shadow was known as the dark side that people would possess. It does not actually mean that people are evil. The main thing that Jung is known for was his focus on introversive and extroversive types. An introvert was someone who focused more inwardly, this person was not the social type and focused more on themselves. An extravert focus just the opposite their focus was outward. Jung, like Freud would stay on the topic of human behavior. Karen Horney was a female psychologist who disagreed with how Freud viewed women. Freud stated that men and women were born with different personalities. (pg 111 n.d.). Horney would disagree with that, she thought  that our social and culture played a bigger role in our  Comparison of Theorists4  personality then biology. She studied a term called neurosis, which means neurotic. Horney’s definition of neurotic is that people are trapped in a self-defeating interpersonal style. The way people interact with others prevents them from developing the social contact they unconsciously crave. (pg 112 n.d.). This will lead to a defense mechanism to help with their feeling of anxiety. Freud would say neurosis was an unconscious battle between various aspects of personality. Horney would state that it would start off in your childhood. Horney had three styles neurotics would use to avoid anxiety experiences. They were called â€Å"moving away from people†, â€Å"moving toward people†, â€Å"moving against people.† Moving away from people, this is when children would learn to just tune people out. When in a hostile environment or situation, instead of engaging with the others they would just tune the person out. Basically ignore the situation. As adults they become sheltered. They would find jobs with little interactions and they would reframe from being in a relationship or intimate. These people would become emotionless and if attached to someone or something the feeling of emptiness while a child would all return. Moving toward people, these people become very dependent on others. They yearn for affection and strive to get accepted by their parents. This yearning would temporally relive them for any anxiety they are having, but in later years they would rely on this. As adults they would have more then usual need for love and affection. They don’t want to be lonely, and believe that any relationship they are in is a relationship. They are demanding affection and don’t know how to love, they are more clingy. Moving against people, these people would rather fight. They have the urge to have power while pushing around children. These individuals believe that being aggressive and mean you can get what you can in that form. You basically take control of the matter before anyone else does. One thing that Horney debated about was Freud theory on  Comparison of Theorists5  women. Freud stated women had â€Å"penis envy†, which is the desire that every girls as to be a boy†(pg 114 n.d.). Horney disagreed and stated that men envy us women and the ability we have to bear and nurse children, this was called the â€Å"womb envy†. Horney was not stating that men were not pleased with themselves but simply stating that we all have qualities that each other admirer. Horney did point out when Freud was making his theory on woman that he was living in a time where woman were treated the way they should have been, he was living in a era where the culture would have helped his influence on the decisions he made for women. Erick Erikson would use some of Freud ideas in his theory; he would add some of his own ideas. Freud believed that the ego was between id impulses and superego demand; however Erikson believed that the ego played a bigger part. Erikson believed that the ego played a powerful, independent part of personality. (pg 106 n.d.). It would help with your identity, and your need to over come the environment. Your ego is to help you get your sense of identity. The term identity crisis comes from Erikson. You would usually find this in adolescents; they seem to not know which way they are going in life. Freud ended his personality development around six years of age, as for Erikson he said it would continue throughout a person’s life. By saying this he gave us eight stages that start from when you are a baby until you’re at an old age. The first stage is basic trust versus mistrust this stage is during infancy years, newborns have no choice but to rely on everyone around them. Autonomy versus shame and doubt is during the toddler’s years, when children want to feel powerful and independent. At the toddler stage Adler stated parents should not pamper, as for Erikson he stated they should not be overprotective at this stage. Initiative versus guilty is early childhood, children learn how to organize and they will learn to set goals and kick down and challenges that come their way. Industry versus. Comparison of Theorists6  inferiority is elementary school age years, this when children soon find out  there is more competition out their in the world. Identity versus role confusion is adolescence years, when teenagers find out who they are and what they want in life. Intimacy versus isolation is young adulthood years, when you seek for the relationship you have always longed for. Generatively versus stagnation is adulthood years, when you want to guide the next generation because you feel as though you have not done everything you want in your life. Ego integrity versus despair is old age years, when you look at your past life and smile you know you have that sense of integrity, but if you don’t you know at this time, it’s too late because time is short now. These four Neo-Freudians have their own approach on personality psychology. When reading all of their perspectives, I would agree to disagree with most. I agreed with Erikson’s approach with the eight stages, Horney was believable because I am a woman and I could relate to where she was coming with her feminine psychology approach. Jung was the more vibrant one and he dug deep into different cultures, and I disagreed with Adler’s approach with the birth order, but would agree with his perspective on how parents pampered and neglected their children. So like there are still debates and intellectual conversations about personality psychology, I would have to debate as well, because there are so many different approaches you can lean towards when it comes to this topic. Comparison of Theorists7 References Burger, J. (2010). Personality. CengageLearning. Eighth edition